Test on Understanding Science (TOUS)
TIMSS -- Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Test on Understanding Science (TOUS)
Developed by Cooley and Klopfer in 1961, TOUS has been the most widely used assessment tool in "nature of science" research (Lederman et al, 1998). The four-alternative 60-item multiple choice test can be scored with an "overall" or "general" score as well as three subscale scores(I) understanding about the scientific enterprise; (II) the scientist; (III) the methods and aims of science. Lederman et al. (1998) state that subscale (III) most directly assesses characteristics relative to the nature of science while the other subscales are concerned with aspects of science distinct from the nature of science.
While TOUS was an excellent beginning for those interested in assessing understandings of the nature of science, Klopfer, one of the developers of TOUS stated that he did not feel that TOUS was a very good measure of the nature of science (Klopfer, personal communication, 1981). Other critiques of TOUS include the need for revision and stronger validity evidence (Welch 1969), too many items embrace a negative viewpoint of science (Wheeler 1968), the complexity of some items may obscure their meaning to students (Hukins 1963), and some TOUS items evoke a response of attitude and appreciation toward science and scientists resulting in a scientist's "good guy" image (Aikenhead 1973). In their concluding remarks about TOUS, Lederman et. al. state that "the TOUS exam appears inappropriate as a sole assessment instrument for the study of and individual's understanding of the nature of science." (Lederman et. al. 1998).
Theories explain natural phenomena. They are created to explain laws and to tell why things work in the universe (Rhodes, Schaible, 1989; Casti, 1989). For example, the theory of natural selection explains the mechanism by which evolution (a law) occurs. In addition, theories are useful because they predict other laws. Finally, theories guide a paradigm and are replaced when a new theory is better at explaining and predicting. It is important to note that the terms theory and law are not interchangeable and do not follow a hierarchical relationship -- one does not become the other over time (Dilworth, 1994).
Themes (associated with science teaching)
Themes are big ideas, overarching concepts, unifying concepts or underlying assignments that integrate the concepts of different scientific disciplines in ways that are useful to the presentation of science teaching. Themes are clustered into three organizers: nature of science, nature of teaching, and nature of learning and the learner. In the California Science Framework (1990) for instance, there are six unifying themes (energy, evolution, patterns and change, scale and structure, stability, and systems and interaction).
Theme-oriented integration: "students study common themes from one grade level to the next" (Crawley, Barufaldi and Salyer, 1994). An example of a theme-oriented integration with science education is the study of processes, such as classifying, interpreting data, identifying variables, etc.
TIMSS -- Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
TIMSS is sponsored by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and funded in the U.S. by the NSF and the NCSE. The TIMSS Study project is considered the largest and most comprehensive international comparison of education ever undertaken of mathematics and science education. More than 50 countries participated in this international survey of academic achievement in the math and sciences. The study focused on children who are 9, 13, and those in the last year of high school.
TIMSS was conducted on the premise that curriculum and teaching methods help determine what students learn. Items evaluated included student test scores as well as textbooks and curriculum guides, instructional practices, students' classroom perceptions and motivation, and influences on student learning. In 1996, the study tested the mathematics and science knowledge of a half-million students from 41 nations. A few general comments can be made about international curricula and the state of American education.
The content of school mathematics and science is not universal. Content varies in terms of topics studied, the degree and type of focus they receive, and the types of skills that students are expected to acquire. This variation is affected by educational policies and national cultures. The sequence in which the content is delivered varies in every country. Topics are introduced at different times, in different ways, to different ages of students, and with varied intensity.
Currently, U.S. standards are unfocused and aimed at the lowest common denominator. Our educational system is fragmented with authority distributed among federal, state, and local entities. This fragmentation creates a lack of common standards that is uncommon in other countries. The achievements of students in other nations reflect the benefits of coherent goals and firmly grounded teaching practices. (TIMSS, 1996). Summary of Findings.
Total Instructional Alignment (TIA)
Total Instructional Alignment (TIA) is a process that has proven to be a key strategy in creating high achieving classrooms, schools and school districts. Total Instructional Alignment goes beyond curriculum alignment by ensuring that alignment occurs in every classroom throughout the entire school and district. The program guides districts in a three step process: alignment of the system, alignment of standards, curriculum, and assessment and alignment of instructional practices in the classroom.
TIA examines vertical and horizontal alignment structures, flexible grouping practices, and the roles of policy, practices, and leadership in redesigning the educational system to ensure all students learn. The program includes a variety of alignment tools and information on sustainability (Carter, 2007).
Carter, L. (2007). Total Instructional Alignment: From Standards to Student Success. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.