Science - A Process Approach (S-APA)
Science and Technology for Children (STC)
Science-Technology-Society (STS)
SCIS: Science Curriculum Improvement Study
Scope, Sequence, and Coordination
Society for Advancement of Hispanic/Chicanos and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS)
Space Science Education Resource Directory (SSERD)
Science - A Process Approach (S-APA)
A program conceived and developed by the Commission on Science Education under the direction of AAAS and with a grant from the NSF. It was then distributed by the Xerox Corporation and was one of the more widely used hands-on programs from 1962 until about 1974. There are boxed sets of exercises and kits with supplies for the experiments.
The kits consist of boxed materials with instructions on how to do each exercise with the children. There is a specific order for doing the experiments and they are color-coded. Along with content materials come boxes of all the items needed to do the experiments. There is a standard kit and also a comprehensive kit that includes every single item for doing the experiments.
The basic philosophy of this K-6 science education curriculum is to have its central purpose awaken in the child, the sense of joy, excitement and intellectual power of science. It was designed to use some of the same skills that scientists use when an investigation is done. Active participation and learning processes of scientific inquiry in a careful and systematic way are fundamental to this program. The Commission had the realization that not all children were going to become scientists but would be future citizens.
A person with an appropriate educational and experiential background including both practical teaching experience and knowledge of the history and trends in science teaching and learning who teaches, or supports the teaching of science. Science educators are interested in improving the general welfare of society through science teaching, as well as promoting science-related vocational and avocational interests. Science educators can be found in classrooms, museum/science centers, environmental centers, government agencies, corporations, etc.
The culmination of reports representing Phase I of Project 2061 and having the purpose to establish a conceptual base for reform by characterizing scientific literacy. It offers a set of recommendations presented in the form of basic learning goals. It spells out the knowledge, skills, and attitudes all students should acquire as a consequence of their total school experience from kindergarten through high school (Ahlgren, & Rutherford, 1993). SEE ALSO AAAS; Benchmarks for Science Literacy; Frameworks; Project 2061; Standards.
Science notebooks can be used to help students develop, practice, and refine their science understanding, while also enhancing reading, writing, mathematics and communications. Science notebooks can be a means of communication in the classroom. The use of science notebooks in the classroom allows for integration of language arts and allows the classroom teacher to formatively assess student understanding of key science concepts.
Student science notebooks consist of several parts:
• Question, Problem, or purpose
• Prediction
• Developing a Plan
• Observations, Data, Charts, Graphs, Drawings and Illustrations
• Claims and Evidence
• Drawing Conclusions
• Reflection -Next Steps and New Questions
Notebooking goes beyond recording data, assembling facts, and establishing procedures. It is a record of student reflections, questions, predictions, claims linked to evidence, and conclusions. Science notebooks bring together language, data and experience to form meaning for the student (Klentschy, 2008).
Klentschy, M. (2008). Using Science Notebooks in Elementary Classrooms. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
http://www.sciencenotebooks.org/
Science Specialists fulfill various needs in different schools or districts -- they serve many functions while trying to increase the science literacy of the student population. Specialists are predominately found in elementary schools and are utilized as a resource for elementary teachers and schools. They may teach pedagogy to the teachers, implement enrichment lessons with students, evaluate and improve a school's science curriculum, and/or be solely responsible for all of the science teaching in a school.
Because many elementary teachers are uncomfortable teaching science, the specialist insures that students are learning science from an enthusiastic, knowledgeable professional. Specialists also guarantee that students receive some science instruction -- many teachers eliminate science from their lesson plans if they need time for another subject. Furthermore, a specialist is able to keep abreast of current developments in science and is therefore able to relate science to society.
Unfortunately, problems exist with the science specialists' positions. If science is taught outside of the classroom, then it is not easily integrated into the classroom curriculum and therefore is not as meaningful to the students. In addition, specialists are costly and most schools do not employ them. Therefore, science specialists are not being trained because of a lack of jobs.
Without trained specialists, science may not be taught effectively in the classroom. Good specialists can integrate enrichment science lessons with both classroom curriculum and advancements in technology. Science specialists should be employed by schools in order to enhance their science programs (Swartz, 1987 and Williams, 1990).
Science and Technology for Children (STC)
Science and Technology for Children (STC) is hands-on, activity based science program for grades K-6. It is the result of a joint effort by some of the leaders in the fields of education and science. An STC unit contains everything needed for a class of thirty students. The units span approximately eight weeks and include a Teacher's Guide, Student Investigation Books and materials.
Each STC unit was nationally field-tested in diverse urban, rural, and suburban public schools by the National Science Resources Center. The assessments in each unit were evaluated by the Program Evaluation and Research Group of Lesley College, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Each unit also reflects the incorporation of teacher and student field-test feedback and of comments on accuracy and soundness from nationally known scientists and science educators who serve on the STC Advisory Panel. This thorough research and development process ensures all STC units are scientifically accurate and pedagogically appropriate for children.
http://www.carolinacurriculum.com/stc/overview_what.asp
Science-Technology-Society (STS)
STS is a term originated by John Ziman in his book Teaching and Learning About Science and Society (1980). STS took root in the United States in 1981 with Norris Harms' Project Synthesis study, which established it as part of the criteria for excellence in science programs. STS is curriculum approach to science which uses a societal context designed to make traditional concepts found in science more relevant to the lives of students. STS is a broad interdisciplinary approach encompassing the relationship of science to daily life, personal needs, and of scientific products and their effect on society (DeBoer, 1991 and Yager, 1993).
Term first used by Paul DeHart Hurd of Stanford University in his 1958 article, "Science Literacy: Its Meaning for American Schools." Hurd (1990) defines it as an understanding of science in relation to our civic and social experiences, which is essential for participation in this science/technology-based democracy.
Traditionally stated as: 1) State the hypotheses 2) Design the experiment to test the hypotheses 3) Collect the data 4) Analyze the data and 5) Draw the conclusions.
Only educators and science textbooks require students to memorize THE scientific method and formally state hypotheses. Much of scientific work is collecting, observing, and measuring not experimenting. Experiments rarely provide final evidence or definitive answers to questions asked during original research as the traditional method suggests. Scientists and researchers acknowledge that the method is questionable and restrictive. They reveal that there are numerous methods to science with as many external influences to these methods. Luck, guesses, and even dreams can be components of scientific methodology (Storey and Carter).
Scientific thinking is primarily a form of inductive thought, in which observations of the world are made and general principles are derived from the observations. This is opposed to deductive thought in which the observations of the world are made to fit preconceived, but flexible, ideas. Deduction is used in science, but induction takes the prominent role. Also involved in scientific thinking are the processes by which observations are made, the attitudes of those gathering the information, and problem solving skills (DeBoer, 1991, p. 193-194).
SCIS: Science Curriculum Improvement Study
SCIS was founded in 1963 by Dr. Robert Karplus with funding from the National Science Foundation. It is an elementary school science curriculum in which teachers use both lesson plans and kits to obtain three goals: basic knowledge, improvement in attitude towards science and scientific skills. Its overall objective is to produce students who possess science literacy. Because SCIS is based on "current" learning theory, it requires the teachers to implement The Learning Cycle. Students are encouraged to become active learners in which they explore phenomenon, are introduced to basic concepts and then discover their own view of the material. In addition, SCIS is a spiral curriculum in which knowledge is built upon each year (Delta Education, 1993; Karplus, 1964).
Scope, Sequence, and Coordination
A project initiated by the National Science Teachers Association. It is designed to generate an interest in science, especially in middle school students. It is a comprehensive, integrated science curriculum that should start in junior-high and continue through high school. The sequence is designed to introduce students to concepts at the beginning in a general way and increase the sophistication each time the student encounters the concept. It takes into account development and increasing maturity in the presentation of the material. The student will encounter each concept many times and in an increasingly multi-disciplinary context. The interrelatedness of science disciplines and their context in society at large is stressed; community and parental involvement is important. Hands-on, experimental learning is emphasized, as is the use of technology. The process of scientific thought is as important as the accumulation of facts (Scope, sequence and coordination, 1992).
Project S.E.E.D.: Science for Early Educational Development for K-6 science education in collaboration with the Pasadena Unified School District. The program was modeled after the science reform efforts of the 60's and the 70's but few schools were successful and kept it alive since then. The "hands-on experiment" approach is conducted by giving each classroom four kits per year. Each kit includes subjects such as biology, physical, and earth sciences. The science kits are loaned for a period of six to eight weeks. Teachers encourage cooperative learning so that the children can construct their own knowledge from observation and evaluation of evidence. Teachers become empowered and overcome the anxiety about teaching science, and eventually become facilitators of inquiry learning rather than experts with all the answers.
The success of Project S.E.E.D. is due in part to the fact that one pilot school shared a commitment by the school district, the National Science Foundation provided funding, the professors of CalTech provided mentoring, and the Postsecondary Eisenhower grant in turn supplied the funding for mentoring. Teachers receive on-going training, which enhances and strengthens science content, pedagogy, and assessment.
Philosophy of Project S.E.E.D.
In 1994 CalTech Precollege Science Initiative (CAPSI), the Pasadena Unified School District, and the National Science Foundation were the first to promote district-wide science education reform. In a six-year period, Project S.E.E.D. will extend itself to fifteen districts. 1995 - Desert Sands, El Centro, Lennox. 1996 - Bakersfield, Tulare, Hacienda, Stockton, Lynwood, and Baldwin Park. In 1997 (Summer) South Bay Union, Inglewood, and Whittier.
Society for Advancement of Hispanic/Chicanos and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS)
The Society for Advancement of Hispanic/Chicanos and Native Americans in Science is an organization dedicated to supporting diversity in education and science by "fostering the success of Hispanic/Chicano and Native American scientists-from college students to professionals-to attain advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership. For 35 years, SACNAS has provided strong national leadership in improving and expanding opportunities for minorities in the scientific workforce and academia; mentoring college students within science, mathematics, and engineering; as well as, supporting quality precollege (K-12) science education." SACNAS provides opportunities for Hispanic/Chicano and Native Americans in Science to participate in precollege teacher training workshops, postdoc and leadership initiatives, and internship and job placement resources. Assistance is provided for undergraduate and graduate students, postdocs, professors, administrators, and precollege educators who desire to achieve expertise within their disciplines.
Space Science Education Resource Directory (SSERD)
Space Science Education Resource Directory is a well cataloged locator for educational resources related to physical, earth, and space science education. Although it was designed for teachers and educators, it is available to the general public as well. This fully automated NASA education resource links source materials to the content and standards criteria.
http://teachspacescience.org/cgi-bin/ssrtop.plex
The curriculum in which themes, topics, and content resurface in the lessons, and books of children. During cognitive development children will pick up themes that are new but will build onto the previous information obtained. This scaffolding of information is what Jerome Bruner stresses is essential for discovery learning. DeBoer cites Bruner, "This development and redevelopment of important topics in later years of school, with each subsequent encounter presented in more abstract terms, constituted what Bruner called 'the spiral curriculum'" (DeBoer, 1991). Furthermore, in the Science Frameworks, "These major themes occur again and again in science, whether one studies ecology, plate tectonics, meteorology, or organic chemistry" (II Science Framework, 1990).
A spiral approach is a curriculum strategy in which the topic is revisited every year with increasingly higher levels of abstraction (Aldridge, 1992). An example of this in science education is as follows: in the freshman year of biology class, a student will learn the basics of 'the elements' and how they are related to the study of earth sciences. In his/her sophomore year, the student will continue learning about elements, but in much greater depth and detail. This will continue throughout the junior and senior year, in their respective subjects.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first successful satellite to orbit the Earth. The launch of Sputnik raised a red flag that triggered the space race rivalry. At that time, the U.S. and the Soviet Union were in the midst of the Cold War, vying for world dominance in a geopolitical arena in which the two superpowers competed for the hearts and minds of the world. The brilliance of Sputnik was the instantaneous world-wide awareness of the event, through its broadcasting of a signal that could be picked up by any ham radio operator in the world, and by its visibility in the night sky. Americans were shocked that the Soviet Union had beaten them. America, they felt, should lead the world in advanced scientific and technological achievement. Sputnik became the symbol of the need for reform in science and math education in the United States. With the launch of Sputnik, educators, scientists, politicians and the general public felt a need to place renewed emphasis on science and math. This led in the 60's to the funding of many curriculum studies.
The Soviet launch promptly ended the debate that had raged for several years about the quality of American education. Those who had argued since the late 1940's that American schools were not rigorous enough and that life adjustment education had cheapened intellectual values felt vindicated, and as one historian later wrote, "a shocked and humbled nation embarked on a bitter orgy of pedagogical soul-searching" (DeBoer, p.146).
The success of the Russian Sputnik, along with the vocal demands of science professionals, created enormous legislative and commercial pressure to use school science as a means of preparing students for tertiary science studies. In the thirty years between 1957 and 1987, the practical and the liberal curriculum emphases progressively gave way to the academic, or professional model of curriculum design (Matthews, 1994, p. 18).
The Science Education Standards are criteria to judge the quality of: what students know and are able to do; science programs that provide opportunities for students to learn sciences; science teaching; teacher and program support; and assessment practices and policies.
The Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education Coalition works to promote STEM programs for teachers and students at the US Department of Education, NSF, and other agencies. "These disciplines are the focus of critical educational and funding efforts from federal, state, and private sectors. The STEM Education Coalition is composed of advocates from over 600 diverse groups representing all sectors of the technological workforce from educators, to teachers, to scientists, engineers, and technicians. The participating organizations are dedicated to ensuring quality STEM education at all levels."
A decline in proficiency has required infusion of additional resources at all levels of education. Educational focus is primarily on "science, math, and engineering programs that provide opportunities for students to learn; technology application and training, science teaching; teacher and program support; and assessment practices and policies."